Marble

Marble is a metamorphic rock composed of recrystallized carbonate minerals, most commonly calcite or dolomite. Marble is typically not foliated, although there are exceptions. In geology, the term marble refers to metamorphosed limestone, but its use in stonemasonry more broadly encompasses unmetamorphosed limestone. Marble is commonly used for sculpture and as a building material.

Marble

Metamorphic rock
Carrara marble quarry in Italy
Composition
Mostly calcite or dolomite

The Taj Mahal is entirely clad in marble.

Etymology

Carlo Franzoni's sculptural marble chariot clock, the Car of History, depicting Clio, the Greek muse of history.

Marble wall of Ruskeala. Republic of Karelia, Russia

The word "marble" derives from the Ancient Greek μάρμαρον (mármaron), from μάρμαρος (mármaros), "crystalline rock, shining stone", perhaps from the verb μαρμαίρω (marmaírō), "to flash, sparkle, gleam"; R. S. P. Beekes has suggested that a "Pre-Greek origin is probable".

Folded and weathered marble at General Carrera Lake, Chile

This stem is also the ancestor of the English word "marmoreal", meaning "marble-like." While the English term "marble" resembles the French marbre, most other European languages (with words like "marmoreal") more closely resemble the original Ancient Greek.^{[citation needed]}

Physical origins

Marble is a rock resulting from metamorphism of sedimentary carbonate rocks, most commonly limestone or dolomite rock. Metamorphism causes variable recrystallization of the original carbonate mineral grains. The resulting marble rock is typically composed of an interlocking mosaic of carbonate crystals. Primary sedimentary textures and structures of the original carbonate rock (protolith) have typically been modified or destroyed.

Pure white marble is the result of metamorphism of a very pure (silicate-poor) limestone or dolomite protolith. The characteristic swirls and veins of many colored marble varieties are usually due to various mineral impurities such as clay, silt, sand, iron oxides, or chert which were originally present as grains or layers in the limestone. Green coloration is often due to serpentine resulting from originally magnesium-rich limestone or dolomite with silica impurities. These various impurities have been mobilized and recrystallized by the intense pressure and heat of the metamorphism.

Types

Main article: List of types of marble

Examples of historically notable marble varieties and locations:

Marble	Color	Location	Country
Pentelic marble	pure-white, fine-grained semitranslucent	Mount Pentelicus (Πεντελικό όρος), Attica (Ἀττική)	Greece
Creole marble	white and blue/black	Pickens County, Georgia	United States
Etowah marble	pink, salmon, rose	Pickens County, Georgia	United States
Makrana marble	white	Makrana, Nagaur district, Rajasthan	India
Murphy marble	white	Pickens and Gilmer Counties, Georgia	United States
Nero Marquina marble	black	Markina, Spain	Spain
Parian marble	pure-white, fine-grained	Island of Paros (Πάρος), South Aegean (Νοτίου Αιγαίου)	Greece
Carrara marble	white or blue-gray	Carrara, Tuscany	Italy
Ruskeala marble	white	near Ruskeala (Рускеала), Karelia (Карелия)	Russia
Rușchița marble	white, pinkish, reddish	Poiana Ruscă Mountains, Caraș-Severin County	Romania
Bianco Sivec	white	near Prilep (Прилеп), Pelagonia (Пелагониски)	North Macedonia
Swedish green marble	green	near Kolmården, Södermanland	Sweden
Sylacauga marble	white	Talladega County, Alabama	United States
Vermont marble	white	Proctor, Vermont	United States
Yule marble	uniform pure white	near Marble, Colorado	United States
Wunsiedel marble	white	Wunsiedel, Bavaria	Germany
Prokonnesos marble	white	Marmara Island, Sea of Marmara	Turkey

Uses

Marble products in Romblon, Philippines

Statue of Abraham Lincoln (Lincoln Memorial) made from Georgia Marble in 1920

Sculpture

White marble has been prized for its use in sculptures since classical times. This preference has to do with its softness, which made it easier to carve, relative isotropy and homogeneity, and a relative resistance to shattering. Also, the low index of refraction of calcite allows light to penetrate several millimeters into the stone before being scattered out,^{[citation needed]} resulting in the characteristic waxy look which brings a lifelike luster to marble sculptures of any kind, which is why many sculptors preferred and still prefer marble for sculpting.^{[citation needed]}

Construction marble

Construction marble is a stone which is composed of calcite, dolomite or serpentine that is capable of taking a polish. More generally in construction, specifically the dimension stone trade, the term marble is used for any crystalline calcitic rock (and some non-calcitic rocks) useful as building stone. For example, Tennessee marble is really a dense granular fossiliferous gray to pink to maroon Ordovician limestone, that geologists call the Holston Formation.

Ashgabat, the capital city of Turkmenistan, was recorded in the 2013 Guinness Book of Records as having the world's highest concentration of white marble buildings.

Production

Mining of Karibib Marble (2018)
22°06′16″S 015°48′48″E

According to the United States Geological Survey, U.S. domestic marble production in 2006 was 46,400 tons valued at about $18.1 million, compared to 72,300 tons valued at $18.9 million in 2005. Crushed marble production (for aggregate and industrial uses) in 2006 was 11.8 million tons valued at $116 million, of which 6.5 million tons was finely ground calcium carbonate and the rest was construction aggregate. For comparison, 2005 crushed marble production was 7.76 million tons valued at $58.7 million, of which 4.8 million tons was finely ground calcium carbonate and the rest was construction aggregate. U.S. dimension marble demand is about 1.3 million tons. The DSAN World Demand for (finished) Marble Index has shown a growth of 12% annually for the 2000–2006 period, compared to 10.5% annually for the 2000–2005 period. The largest dimension marble application is tile.

In 1998, marble production was dominated by 4 countries that accounted for almost half of world production of marble and decorative stone. Italy and China were the world leaders, each representing 16% of world production, while Spain and India produced 9% and 8%, respectively.

In 2018 Turkey was the world leader in marble export, with 42% share in global marble trade, followed by Italy with 18% and Greece with 10%. The largest importer of marble in 2018 was China with a 64% market share, followed by India with 11% and Italy with 5%.

Occupational safety

Dust produced by cutting marble could cause lung disease but more research needs to be carried out on whether dust filters and other safety products reduce this risk.

In the United States, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit (permissible exposure limit) for marble exposure in the workplace as 15 mg/m³ total exposure and 5 mg/m³ respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 10 mg/m³ total exposure and 5 mg/m³ respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday.

Degradation by acids

Acids damage marble, because the calcium carbonate in marble reacts with them, releasing carbon dioxide (technically speaking, carbonic acid, but that decomposes quickly to CO₂ and H₂O) :

CaCO₃(s) + 2H⁺(aq) → Ca²⁺(aq) + CO₂(g) + H₂O (l)

Thus, vinegar or other acidic solutions should never be used on marble. Likewise, outdoor marble statues, gravestones, or other marble structures are damaged by acid rain.

Microbial degradation

The haloalkaliphilic methylotrophic bacterium Methylophaga murata was isolated from deteriorating marble in the Kremlin. Bacterial and fungal degradation was detected in four samples of marble from Milan cathedral; black Cladosporium attacked dried acrylic resin using melanin.

Cultural associations

Jadwiga of Poland's sarcophagus by Antoni Madeyski, Wawel Cathedral, Cracow

Relief on the Marble Door of the Hagia Sophia in Istanbul

As the favorite medium for Greek and Roman sculptors and architects (see classical sculpture), marble has become a cultural symbol of tradition and refined taste. Its extremely varied and colorful patterns make it a favorite decorative material, and it is often imitated in background patterns for computer displays, etc.

Places named after the stone include Marblehead, Massachusetts; Marblehead, Ohio; Marble Arch, London; the Sea of Marmara; India's Marble Rocks; and the towns of Marble, Minnesota; Marble, Colorado; Marble Falls, Texas, and Marble Hill, Manhattan, New York. The Elgin Marbles are marble sculptures from the Parthenon in Athens that are on display in the British Museum. They were brought to Britain by the Earl of Elgin.

Artificial marble

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Marble dust is combined with cement or synthetic resins to make reconstituted or cultured marble. The appearance of marble can be simulated with faux marbling, a painting technique that imitates the stone's color patterns.

Gallery

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  The Nike of Samothrace is made of Parian marble (c. 220–190 BC)

 
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  Laocoön and His Sons in the Vatican

 
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  The Praetorians Relief, made from grey veined marble, c. 51–52 AD

 
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  Ancient marble columns in the prayer hall of the Mosque of Uqba, in Kairouan, Tunisia

 
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  Cleopatra by William Wetmore Story was described and admired in Nathaniel Hawthorne's romance, The Marble Faun, and is on display at The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City.

 
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  Näckrosen (Water Lily), Stockholm 1892, by Swedish sculptor Per Hasselberg (1850-1894). Here a copy from 1953 in marble by Giovanni Ardini (Italy) placed in Rottneros Park near Sunne in Värmland/Sweden.

 
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  Pažaislis Monastery complex has the most marble-decorated Baroque church of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania

 

 

This article uses material from the Wikipedia article  Metasyntactic variable, which is released under the  Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License.